Sustainable antifouling coating technologies for the maritime industry: An evolutionary overview

Abstract

Biofouling of marine submerged structures due to the colonization of marine micro and macro-organisms continues to pose severe operational and ecological challenges. Traditional antifouling paints containing Tributyl Tin and Cybutryne were banned by the International Maritime Organization in 2008 and 2023 respectively due to their toxicity to marine ecosystem. Currently available antifouling paints fall into two broad categories: ablative or sloughing paints used for smaller vessels, and hard coat paints, such as vinyl and epoxy coatings, used for larger ships. Functionally, these coatings can be grouped into Foul release coatings, Protein resistant coatings, and the more recent Bioinspired coatings. This paper presents a consolidative review of modern antifouling coating technologies and their transition from conventional chemical formulations to advanced, biologically inspired and data-driven approaches. Eight major fabrication and surface engineering techniques, including deposition, templating, etching, electrostatic deposition, nanocomposite synthesis, additive manufacturing, micromachining, and self-assembly, have been discussed with reference to their antifouling mechanisms, benefits, and limitations. Special focus is given to laser-based micromachining methods, which enables precise modification of micro and nanoscale surface topographies. The review also explores the development of hybrid organic and inorganic coating systems, multifunctional and environmentally responsive materials, and the application of computational and machine learning tools for predictive design and accelerated testing of antifouling coatings. By combining these experimental and computational strategies, the study outlines a coherent direction for the creation of next generation coating systems that exhibit structural innovation, self-repairing capability, and intelligent performance. The paper concludes that collaborative research between laboratory scientists and the maritime industry will be essential for developing durable, effective, and environmentally sustainable antifouling solutions for future marine applications.